Freedom Fighters Patriotism Essay

India was under British rule for over more than 200 years. The freedom of India did not come easily. It required fearless courage and true spirit to regain India’s freedom. The freedom history of India is full of great leaders and freedom fighters that faced exploitations, hardships and immense torture to earn freedom that was dutifully ours. It demanded immense courage and sacrifice to devote one’s life to the cause of freedom of the mother nation. Every Indian who lived under the British rule dreamt of an independent India. Different freedom fighters adopted different ways of fighting the British Empire but the common objective was same, to earn the freedom. Credit must go to the spirit of those great fighters who aimed to abolish the British and various other colonial authorities ruling over different parts of India. It is because of them that we are living in a free, democratic country. The freedom of India came after a century of struggle, revolution, blood shedding, sacrifices and battles. Before India finally achieved the freedom on 15th of August, 1947, many lives were lost and sacrificed on the altar of independence. Countless patriotic people and freedom fighters who possessed tremendous spirit and immense bravery surrendered their lives for the sake of free India. The freedom came at a heavy price, of lives and division of united India and that’s why we must respect and appreciate our independence. Indian freedom fight officially began with mutiny of 1857. The initial freedom fighters and patriots were Mangal Pandey, Rani of Jhansi, Tantia Tope and several others. They led the uprising that was brutally suppressed by the cruel British rulers. It was the arrival of the Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi that completely changed the landscape of Indian freedom struggle. His main weapon was non-violence that paid handsome returns for the Indians. There were several prominent freedom fighters who toiled for the independence of India. Names like Gopal Krishna Gokhle, Lala Lajpat Rai, Annie Besant, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Chandrashekhar Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sarojini Naidu, Dadabhai Naoroji, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Sucheta Kriplani, etc have made themselves immortal in the annals of Indian freedom fight. These leaders were well assisted by thousands and lakhs of men and women who fought daringly for the independence of India.

Examining Yourself as a Writer Essay

The art of writing is a unique skill that requires the writer to have great flexibility and be open to improvement. Some may consider themselves a â€Å"perfect writer†, when in reality, no one is, and will ever be. Writing is a process that requires one to continuously build on skills learned in previous situations, applying new techniques and strategies to future writing projects. Different settings require different writing styles, and with that being said, one must be willing to change their writing skills to suit the requirements of their current setting. In the following essay I will reflect on past writing assignments, identifying my best and worst writing courses, strengths and weaknesses as a writer, and my opinion on why writing may or may not be beneficial to me throughout my career. Although I consider English/Composition one of my strong points, writing wouldn’t fall into the category of things I like to do. As bad as it sounds, I’m the type of person who only writes when it’s required of me to do so. As I look back on my writing career I’d have to say my best writing course was a course entitled Health Disparities. I took this course my junior year at Spelman College and was required to write quite a few papers. I would name this course my best in terms of writing because we were able to choose between a number of topics to write our papers on, versus just one, and each topic focused on something I personally am very interested in, which is health. Most of the papers required 5-10 pages, but because I was interested in the topics 5-10 pages felt like 3-5. The professor provided detailed feedback on our papers, giving us the opportunity to revise the paper before turning in the final copy. I would have to say that my worst writing co urse was Intro to Eastern Religious Traditions. I disliked this course because the subject matter itself confused me. The writing assignments were outlandish and required a great deal of critical thinking and research on a topic that I found to be very complex and confusing. I am not a big fan of research papers, especially when I have no interest in the topic of discussion. Another thing that made it so bad was the fact that the professor was very strict and it seemed like nothing was good enough. It was from this course that I learned the importance of being an open writer, in  terms of adjusting my writing style to accept new forms and topics of writing. All writers have strengths and weaknesses when it comes to their ability to formulate a piece of literature. One of my main strengths in writing is the ability to formulate sentences that are grammatically correct. I have always been particular about using correct punctuation, spelling words correctly, and making sure my sentences flow. I would also consider my vocabulary to be quite extensive, allowing for the use of more sophisticated words throughout my writing. My weaknesses include issues with starting my introduction, expressing my ideas and thoughts in a concise and coherent manner, and formulating the body of my paper, as far as weeding out what is and isn’t important in relation to my thesis statement. When given a prompt, so many thoughts start flowing through my head that I sometimes get overwhelmed and can’t decide what information I should and shouldn’t use. One thing I’ve never been too keen on is outlining my thoughts before beginning a piece of writing. I’m the type of person who thinks and writes at the same time, which may not allow me to adequately brainstorm on the information that should be provided in my writing. With that being said, I will work on first, placing my ideas on paper, then placing those ideas into an outline, and lastly formulating my paper into a smooth and concise piece of writing In my opinion, writing is a fundamental aspect of all facets of life, especially in most, if not all careers. If one is unable to write, it can be very hard for them to carry out even the smallest tasks. You don’t have to be an expert writer, but basic writing skills are a must. In my future career as a Nurse, writing will be very relevant. Nurses have to complete patient charts, provide detailed explanations of the patient’s care regimes for those who will be providing care to the patients after them, etc. Communication between nurses and doctors is crucial and if not documented with precision a patient’s life could be in jeopardy. A nurse without writing capabilities would not be able to perform their job with the proficiency that they should. As previously mentioned, writing is a process that welcomes proficiency, but not perfection. One must understand the importance of being flexible and open to change when it comes to writing. Practicing good writing skills can be a little difficult but, it’s a long-term commitment which facilitates the ability to develop better writing habits. With great effort, weaknesses can be turned into strengths,  and current strengths can always be improved. I look forward to improving my ability to articulate my ideas in a clear and intelligent manner, as well as practicing my new skills in and outside of this course, as well as in my future career as a Nurse.

Separation of Church and State

SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE Constitutional Context: â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances† (1st Amend). Executive Branch Context: â€Å"We should live our lives as though Christ were coming this afternoon. † – Jimmy Carter â€Å"I was humbled to learn that God sent His Son to die for a sinner like me. † – George W.Bush†We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. † – Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 Congressional Context: Public Law 97-280 is a resolution that recognizes the influence of the Bible on th e development of our nation. Introduced as Senate Joint Resolution 165, with thirty-three co-sponsors, and as House Joint Resolution 487 with 219 co-sponsors, a request was delivered before Congress to honor the Bible as Holy Scripture.The resolution suffered no amendments, no exclusions, no demands that it be stricken of religious references. It became law. The 97th Congress of the United States publicly declared 1983 the national â€Å"Year of the Bible†. The bipartisan document known as Public Law 97-280, was signed on October 4, 1982 by Speaker of the House Thomas P. O'Neill, President of the Senate – Pro Tempore Strom Thurmond, and President of the United States Ronald Reagan.It reads as follows: WHEREAS the Bible, the Word of God, has made a unique contribution in shaping the United States as a distinctive and blessed nation and people; WHEREAS deeply held religious convictions springing from the Holy Scriptures led to the early settlement of our Nation; WHEREAS Biblical teachings inspired concepts of civil government that are contained in our Declaration of Independence and Constitution of the United States; WHEREAS many of our great national leaders–among them Presidents Washington, Jackson, Lincoln, and Wilson–paid tribute to the surpassing influence of the Bible in our country's development, as in the words of President Jackson that the Bible is â€Å"the Rock on which our Republic rests†; WHEREAS the history of our Nation clearly illustrates the value of voluntarily applying the teachings of the Scriptures in the ives of individuals, families, and societies; WHEREAS this Nation now faces great challenges that will test this Nation as it has never been tested before; and WHEREAS that renewing our knowledge of and faith in God through Holy Scripture can strengthen us as a nation and a people:  NOW, THEREFORE, be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assem bled, That the President is authorized and requested to designate 1983 as a national â€Å"Year of the Bible† in recognition of both the formative influence the Bible has been for our Nation, and our national need to study and apply the teachings of the Holy Scriptures. Both secularists and Christians in evangelism in America must operate within the context of the controversy of the separation of church and state. The State and Church are in mutual consensus as evidenced in both the law of the land and in the law of God. By resolution of U. S. Congress ratified by President Reagan PL 97-280 our government acknowledges the formative role of the Bible in our State affairs â€Å"the history of our Nation clearly illustrates the value of voluntarily applying the teachings of the Scriptures in the lives of individuals, families, and societies. Likewise, scripture speaks to the church on this duty as a citizen: Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore whoever resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment. For rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. Would you have no fear of the one who is in authority? Then do what is good, and you will receive his approval, for he is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword in vain. For he is the servant of God, an avenger who carries out God's wrath on the wrongdoer.Therefore one must be in subjection, not only to avoid God's wrath but also for the sake of conscience. For because of this you also pay taxes, for the authorities are ministers of God, attending to this very thing. Pay to all what is owed to them: taxes to whom taxes are owed, revenue to whom revenue is owed, respect to whom respect is owed, honor to whom honor is owed. (Romans 13:1-7 ESV) â€Å"The Americans combine the notions of Christianity and of liberty so intimately in their minds, that it is impossible to make them conceive the one without the other. †Ã‚  Alexis de Tocqueville The tendency of textbook authors has been to deny or denigrate the role of religion in their depictions of the founding of the United States.Historians like Professor Eric Foner teach their students that the Founding Fathers were able to embrace progressive ideas  like freedom and equality because they viewed Christianity and the Bible as â€Å"outdated superstitions that should be abandoned in the modern age. †1Eric Foner,  Give Me Liberty,  2005 edition, p. 145 The truth is very different. College history professors, like other left wing extremists, are loath to acknowledge that religion has played a positive role in the development of this nation; yet any honest portrayal of American history would have to acknowledge it. The rights and freedoms enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Constit ution were, the Founders thought, quite literally sacred; having been bestowed on the human race by God Himself.The American people of the late eighteenth century were more generally devout in their Christianity than the citizens of any other nation, and there is a reason for that. In America religion was not imposed on the people by government, it was freely chosen. Sincere religious faith animated the founders and masses of this nation in ways that other nations of the world could not understand. Secular humanists and effete leftists who populate college history faculties, historical revisionists might be uncomfortable with the Biblical basis of America’s principles of freedom and equality, and might even work to keep the information from their students, but the facts remain what they are.Religious convictions provided the ideological underpinnings of the founding principles of this nation. Effect of Separation of Church and State When the Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville vi sited the United States in 1831 and 1832, he remarked that there was â€Å"no country in the whole world in which the Christian religion retains a greater influence over the souls of men than in America† (Tocqueville, p. 350). Tocqueville made it clear that while religion was an important part of the American character, religious conformity was not. The Americans he met approached God as individuals. Unlike Europe, where citizens passively accepted whatever religious denomination their rulers might mandate, the Americans chose their own churches. The sects which exist in the United States are innumerable,† said Tocqueville, â€Å"they all differ in respect to the worship which is due from man to his Creator, but they all agree in respect to the duties which are due from man to man† (p. 350). Tocqueville was observing and describing a new and powerful religious enthusiasm among American Protestants after a wave of religious revivals known as the Great Awakening. R eligious rebirth gave some Americans a mooring in a fast changing world; others determined to refashion their society, working through new political parties to shape an agenda for the nation or through reform associations targeting a particular social evil.Although not all evangelicals agreed about politics or even about what needed reform, religion was the lens through which they viewed events and sought change. The separation of Church and State also had a significant effect. The absence of a state church meant that in America many sects would flourish. And since most churches and religious groups have been interested in maintaining their own orphanages, hospitals, aid societies, and other welfare institutions, these have abounded in America. Furthermore, the long experience of promoting social welfare through these and other voluntary associations may have led Americans to feel that there was unique value in such private operations (Trattner, p. 42).Lord Bryce student of American affairs in 1888 observed: In the works of active benevolence no country has surpassed, perhaps none has equaled, the United States. Not only are the sums collected for all sorts of philanthropic purposes larger relatively to the wealth of Americans than in any European country, but the amount of personal effort devoted to them seem to a European visitor to exceed what he knows at home (Trattner, p. 42). The Ramifications of the Separation of Church and State on America today Where does the debate begin? Since Jesus arrived in world history, the powers that be were either honored or threatened by his presence, though wise men from the east worshiped him, King Herod sought to have him killed.Jesus taught his disciples a principle that is compatible to the a separation of church and state: â€Å"to render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and unto God the things that are God’s †(Matthew 22:15). The ruling authority of the Jews were at odds with Jesus. The S anhedrin instigate false charges to commence the greatest trial of all history where Jesus was asked by Pontius Pilate ‘what is truth’ and though innocent he was condemned and executed by Roman crucifixion. A period of martyrdom and persecutions followed but the church continues to multiply until Emperor Constantine sees opportunity to unite his kingdom under the banner of the Cross and declared the Church to be the religion of the Roman Empire. Christendom as political authority is not immune from corruption.The church splits East (Greek) and West (Latin) followed by the reformation, centuries are characterized by periods of turmoil, civil strife, imperial conquest, witch hunts, wars of religion and persecutions, generated in large part by established churches determined to maintain their absolute political and religious supremacy. â€Å"With the power of government supporting them, at various times and places, Catholics had persecuted Protestants, Protestants had per secuted Catholics, Protestant sects had persecuted other Protestant sects, Catholics of one shade of belief had persecuted Catholics of another shade of belief, and all of these had from time to time persecuted Jews† (Everson case).Protestants and Catholics denounced and persecuted each other as heretics and followers of Satan. Settlers in American Colonies Early settlers came from Europe to the colonies of America to escape the bondage of laws which compelled them to support and attend government-favored churches. In efforts to force loyalty to whatever religious group happened to be on top and in league with the government people could be put in jail for speaking disrespectfully of the views of ministers of government-established churches, non-attendance at those churches, expressions of nonbelief in their doctrines, and failure to pay taxes and tithes to support them, fined, cruelly tortured, and killed. All publications, whether pamphlets or scholarly volumes, were subject to prior censorship by both church and state, often working hand in hand† (Redmond Lecture Two)(Macaulay, 320-22). Any serious student of history particularly Church history, will no doubt come to the conclusion that it is not workable when the state is running the church nor is it workable when the church is running the state. There are churches with traditions and views on both sides of the issue. Confusion about separation of church and state involves, in part, confusion about definitions, unreasonable expectations and unfounded fears. For example there is more clarity when we distinguish between religion and morality in civil terms.The domain of religion involves duty to God. How could civil law make a ruling on a contract with God as a party? Clearly there is no jurisdiction over the unseen eternal God but rather God does have authority over His creation. Morality involves our duty to one another and is within the jurisdiction of the civil courts. Our lawmakers usurp God ’s sovereign authority if they presume to tell people how, when, or if to worship — that would be legislating religion. But lawmakers are obliged to inform people how they should treat one another— that’s legislating morality. There is some overlap as in the great love command God tells us to love him and love one another as we love ourselves.And likewise in the law of the land, the fact is that contrary to popular opinion, all laws legislate morality in that set out what is morally right and wrong, and every law legally declares a behavior legal/acceptable/right and its opposite illegal/ not acceptable/ wrong. Although there are Christians on both sides of the question of church v. state, the underlying concern is not whether we as a people can elect representatives to legislate morality but rather the underlying concern is: â€Å"Whose morality should we legislate? † Rule of Law Certainly, in a representative democratic constitutional republic, i t is impossible to sustain a cohesive rule of law if each individual is permitted to tailor design their own personal preference for what constitutes morality. In the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, the founders perhaps anticipated this dynamic.It should not be my morality that gets legislated or yours or one that is continually redefined and reinvented, but rather the one that is â€Å"self-evident† because it has been endowed on us by our Creator. † When part of the â€Å"Laws of Nature,† we only hurt ourselves and others by suppressing those truths so we can do what we want. Just as there is Social Darwinism there is also a legal Darwinism. Throughout Western history until the second half of the nineteenth century, the idea of a higher moral law dominated European and American law. This mainstream tradition lasted as the main school of legal thought until the rise of evolutionary thinking in the nineteenth century. In particular, the idea tha t human law must be subject to some objective moral standards tarted to be more deeply challenged when Darwin’s theory of biological evolution was interpreted as implying the non-existence of God and accordingly, of God-given law and rights (http://creation. com/evolutionary-legal-theories). Marriage as an Example of Moral Law For a thousands of years, we have legislated the self-evident truth that men are meant for women. Now suddenly homosexuals—long critical of conservatives for trying to â€Å"legislate morality†Ã¢â‚¬â€are trying to legislate their own morality in the form of same-sex marriage. They want to ignore self-evident truths and impose their own invented morality on the entire country. The Defense of Marriage Act is passed and upheld on appeal but then not honored by the President but rather he profers a different view of marriage.These conflicts of law are generating a confused moral fabric of cases, law, tradition and belief without any authority adequately endowed with sufficient credibility to serve as the premier lawgiver. For Congress and States the question is this: Should they continue to legislate the inherited morality that nurtures the next generation (natural marriage), or the invented one that entices it to destruction (same-sex marriage)? Some states come down without wavering, some waver. The answer used to be considered to be self-evident. To aid in their analysis the Supreme Court has constructed a legal principle that the Constitution requires a strict separation of church and state.The concept of separation should not be construed as mutual exclusivity as a first step in a divorce process, not ‘freedom from religion’ but rather in the giving of ample space to thrive as separate but equal partners in ‘freedom of religion’. Churches and the Bible teach that murder, rape, and child abuse are wrong, and no one says laws prohibiting such acts are a violation of the â€Å"separation of church and state. † In fact, if the government could not pass laws consistent with church or biblical teachings, then all criminal laws would have to be overturned because they are all in some way consistent with at least one of the Ten Commandments as standards of ethical values. With respect to this issue of marriage for example, there are churches on both sides of this issue.In other words,  some churches actually support same-sex marriage. So if there is a strict separation of church and state, then one position should prevent the converse. If one cannot put male-female marriage forward then one shouldn’t be able to put the pro-same-sex marriage position into law either, right? The revolutionary settlement ultimately promoted the radical idea that the church and state ought to be separated. Prior to 1776, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware had allowed full religious liberty. They had done so because local diversity made any other policy impossibl e or because of an ideological commitment to religious freedom.Other colonies followed the more common practice in Europe, with established churches endorsed by the government and supported by public taxes. Although civil authorities grudgingly tolerated â€Å"dissenters† such as Methodists and Baptists in those colonies,, their numbers were growing rapidly. On the eve of the Revolution, they noisily pressed their case for full religious liberty. With independence, pressure built for severing all ties between church and state. Isaac Backus, the most outspoken of New England’s Baptists, protested that â€Å"many, who are filling the nation with the cry of liberty and against oppressors are at the same time themselves violating that dearest of all rights, liberty or conscience. Such arguments were strengthened by the belief that throughout history, alliances between government and church authorities had brought religious oppression, and that voluntary choice was the onl y safe basis for religious association. In New England, Congregationalists fought to preserve their long established privileges. To separate church and state, they argued, was to risk infidelity and disorder. Massachusett’s 1780 constitution guaranteed everyone the right to worship God â€Å"in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience. † But it also empowered the legislature to require towns to tax their residents to support local ministers.Backus argued that official support should be ended completely â€Å"religious toleration,† he insisted, fell far short of true religious freedom. Not until 1833 were laws linking church and state finally repealed in Massachusetts (Nash, 192). In Virginia, Baptists pressed their cause against the Protestant Episcopal Church, successor to the Church of England. The adoption in 1786 of Thomas Jefferson’s Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, rejecting all connections between church an d state and removing all religious tests for public office, decisively settled the issue. Three years later, that statute served as a model for the First Amendment to the new federal Constitution. But even the most ardent supporters of religious freedom were not prepared to extend it universally.The wartime alliance with Catholic France together with Congressional efforts, to entice Catholic settlers in Quebec to join the resistance against Britain had weakened long- established prejudices. Still, anti-Catholic biases remained strong, especially in New England. The people of Northbridge, Massachusetts, wanted to exclude â€Å"Roman Catholics, pagons, or Mahomitents† from public office. The legal separation of church and state did not end religious discrimination , but it implanted the principle of religious freedom firmly in American law. | Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government. A number of the states effectively had established churches  wh en the First Amendment was ratified, with some remaining into the early nineteenth century.In the United States, the controversial topic of the interrelationship between church and state is set forth in a legal conceptual framework as well as an unwritten tradition of mutual consensus and understanding between the Church and State both on a federal as well as a state and local level. Following the passage of the Thirteenth to Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution at the end of the Civil War, the Supreme Court would hear hundreds of cases involving conflicts over the constitutionality of laws passed by the states. The decisions in these cases were often criticized as resulting more from the biases of the individual Justices than the applicable rule of law or constitutional duty to protect individual rights. In 1947, in the case Everson v.Board of Education, Supreme Court by Justice Black ruled that the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment erected a, â€Å"wall of separatio n between church and state† which the Court found means that the government cannot participate in the affairs of a religious group, set up a church, aid or prefer one religion over another, or aid or prefer religion over non-religion. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach. † The â€Å"separation of church and state† phrase which they invoked, and which has today become so familiar, was taken from an exchange of letters between President Thomas Jefferson and the Baptist Association of Danbury, Connecticut, shortly after Jefferson became President which we will consider further. First we must glean the premier casselaw on topic and Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U. S. 1 (1947) was landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court which applied the Establishment Clause in the country's Bill of Rights to State law. Prior to this decision the First Amendment words, â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting an e stablishment of religion† imposed limits only on the federal government, while many states continued to grant certain religious denominations legislative or effective privileges. This was the first Supreme Court case incorporating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment as binding upon the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The decision in Everson marked a turning point in the interpretation and application of disestablishment law in the modern era.The case was brought by a New Jersey taxpayer against a tax funded school district that provided reimbursement to parents of both public and private schooled children taking the public transportation system to school. The taxpayer contended that reimbursement given for children attending private religious schools violated the constitutional prohibition against state support of religion, and the taking of taxpayers' money to do so violated the constitution's Due Process Clause. The Justices wer e split over the question whether the New Jersey policy constituted support of religion, with the majority concluding these reimbursements were â€Å"separate and so indisputably marked off from the religious function† that they did not violate the constitution.However, both affirming and dissenting Justices were decisive that the Constitution required a sharp separation between government and religion and their strongly worded opinions paved the way to a series of later court decisions that taken together brought about profound changes in legislation, public education, and other policies involving matters of religion. Both Justice Hugo Black's majority opinion and Justice Wiley Rutledge's dissenting opinion defined the First Amendment religious clause in terms of a â€Å"wall of separation between church and state†. After repealing a former ban, a New Jersey law authorized payment by local school boards of the costs of transportation to and from schools – inclu ding private schools.Of the private schools that benefited from this policy, 96% were parochial Catholic schools. Arch R. Everson, a taxpayer in Ewing Township, filed a lawsuit alleging that this indirect aid to religion through the mechanism of reimbursing parents and students for costs incurred as a result of attending religious schools violated both the New Jersey state constitution and the First Amendment. After a loss in the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals, then the state's highest court, Everson appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court on purely federal constitutional grounds. Arguments were heard on November 20, 1946. The 5-4 decision was handed down on February 10, 1947.The Court, through Justice Hugo Black, ruled that the state bill was constitutionally permissible because the reimbursements were offered to all students regardless of religion and because the payments were made to parents and not any religious institution. Perhaps as important as the actual outcome, though , was the interpretation given by the entire Court to the Establishment Clause. It reflected a broad interpretation of the Clause that was to guide the Court's decisions for decades to come. It was not until the twentieth century that the  Supreme Court  began to interpret the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses in such a manner as to restrict the promotion of religion by the states. In the Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v.Grumet (1994), Justice  David Souter, writing for the majority, concluded that â€Å"government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to  irreligion. † Documents consistently cited by the Supreme Court Justices were the Memorial and Remonstrance by James Madison and an Act Establishing Religious Freedom by Thomas Jefferson. The case of Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) for the first time in the nation’s history determined that the Amendment’s religion clauses apply to state and local laws. C antwell employed what has come to be labeled the incorporation doctrine. Using this doctrine, the justices in Cantwell found in favor of extending free exercise protection to members of the Jehovah’s Witnesses in Connecticut.Justice Roberts wrote, â€Å"The Fourteenth Amendment has rendered the legislatures of the states as incompetent as Congress to enact such laws. † A few months later in Minersville v. Gobitis, the court determined that even with the incorporation doctrine Jehovah’s Witnesses were not protected from disciplinary action when they abstained from pledging allegiance to the flag in public school ceremonies. Then, three years later with two new justices appointed by President Franklin Roosevelt the court reversed itself in its decision in West Virginia v. Barnette. This was the first in a long line of cases in which the court so fashioned the free exercise clause of the First Amendment. Justice Robert Jackson writing for he majority concluded â₠¬Å"If there is any star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us. † In 1948 Justice Hugo Black in the case of McCollum v. Board of Education, drawing upon the historical reasoning in Everson v. Board of Education, the Court acted to apply the establishment clause to declare unconstitutional an Illinois State law that permitted religious groups to use public school classrooms during school hours to teach religion. These two watershed decisions have proven remarkably resilient as guideposts for cases that have followed.In the building of case precedents the judges have relied heavily upon the actions and words of two of the nation’s founders, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. The focus ha s been upon Madison’s role in wording the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 concerning â€Å"free exercise,† his critical involvement in the passage of Jefferson’s Bill of Establishing Religious Freedom in Virginia in 1785-86, and his leadership in pressing for adoption of the religion clauses in the First Amendment to the Constitution. The Court has consistently offered opinions which have been tied to Jefferson’s 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in which he affirmed that the religion clauses built â€Å" a wall of separation between church and state. â€Å"The ‘establishment of religion' clause of the First Amendment means at least this: Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions or prefer one religion over another. Neither can force nor influence a person to go to or to remain away from church against his will or force him to profess a belief or disbelief in any religion. No person can be punished for entertaining or professing religious beliefs or disbeliefs, for church attendance or non-attendance. No tax in any amount, large or small, can be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or practice religion.Neither a state nor the Federal Government can, openly or secretly, participate in the affairs of any religious organizations or groups and vice versa. In the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect ‘a wall of separation between Church and State. ‘† (330 U. S. 1, 15-16). Justice Wiley Rutledge argued that: † When the funds used were raised by taxation, the Court does not dispute nor could it that their use does in fact give aid and encouragement to religious instruction. It only concludes that this aid is not ‘support' in law. But Madison and Jeffer son were concerned with aid and support in fact not as a legal conclusion ‘entangled in precedents. In this case, parents pay money to send their children to parochial schools and funds raised by taxation are used to reimburse them. This not only helps the children to get to school and the parents to send them. It aids them in a substantial way to get the very thing which they are sent to the particular school to secure, namely, religious training and teaching. † (330 U. S. 1, 45). Having invoked Thomas Jefferson's metaphor of the wall of separation in the Everson decision, the lawmakers and courts have struggled how to balance governments' dual duty to satisfy both the non-establishment clause and the free exercise clause contained in the language of the amendment.The majority and dissenting Justices in Everson split over this very question, with Rutledge in the minority by insisting that the Constitution forbids â€Å"every form of public aid or support for religionâ € . Principle and Rule of Law frequently applied in Court precedent is found in the case of Kedroff v. St. Nicholas Cathedral, 344 U. S. 94 – (1952) Its ruling is summed up in these words: ‘In this country the full and free right to entertain any religious belief, to practice any religious principle, and to teach any religious doctrine which does not violate the laws of morality and property, and which does not infringe personal rights, is conceded to all. The law knows no heresy, and is committed to the support of no dogma, the establishment of no sect.The right to organize voluntary religious associations to assist in the expression and dissemination of any religious doctrine, and to create tribunals for the decision of controverted questions of faith within the association, and for the ecclesiastical government of all the individual members, congregations, and officers within the general association, is unquestioned. All who unite themselves to such a body do so w ith an implied consent to this government, and are bound to submit to it. But it would be a vain consent and would lead to the total subversion of such religious bodies, if any one aggrieved by one of their decisions could appeal to the secular courts and have them reversed.It is of the essence of these religious unions, and of their right to establish tribunals for the decision of questions arising among themselves, that those decisions should be binding in all cases of ecclesiastical cognizance, subject only to such appeals as the organism itself provides for. ‘ (13 Wall. at pages 728 729, 20 L. Ed. 666). The election of Jefferson – America's first Anti-Federalist President – elated many Baptists since that denomination, by-and-large, was also strongly Anti-Federalist. This political disposition of the Baptists was understandable, for from the early settlement of Rhode Island in the 1630s to the time of the federal Constitution in the 1780s, the Baptists had of ten found themselves suffering from the centralization of power.Consequently, now having a President who not only had championed the rights of Baptists in Virginia but who also had advocated clear limits on the centralization of government powers, the Danbury Baptists wrote Jefferson a letter of praise on October 7, 1801, telling him: Among the many millions in America and Europe who rejoice in your election to office, we embrace the first opportunity . . . to express our great satisfaction in your appointment to the Chief Magistracy in the United States. . . . We have reason to believe that America's God has raised you up to fill the Chair of State out of that goodwill which He bears to the millions which you preside over. May God strengthen you for the arduous task which providence and the voice of the people have called you. . . And may the Lord preserve you safe from every evil and bring you at last to his Heavenly Kingdom through Jesus Christ our Glorious Mediator. However, in that same letter of congratulations, the Baptists also expressed to Jefferson their grave concern over the entire concept of the First Amendment, including of its guarantee for â€Å"the free exercise of religion†: Our sentiments are uniformly on the side of religious liberty: that religion is at all times and places a matter between God and individuals, that no man ought to suffer in name, person, or effects on account of his religious opinions, and that the legitimate power of civil government extends no further than to punish the man who works ill to his neighbor. But sir, our constitution of government is not specific. . . Therefore what religious privileges we enjoy (as a minor part of the State) we enjoy as favors granted, and not as inalienable rights. In short, the inclusion of protection for the â€Å"free exercise of religion† in the constitution suggested to the Danbury Baptists that the right of religious expression was government-given (thus alienable) rat her than God-given (hence inalienable), and that therefore the government might someday attempt to regulate religious expression. This was a possibility to which they strenuously objected-unless, as they had explained, someone's religious practice caused him to â€Å"work ill to his neighbor. † Jefferson understood their concern; it was also his own.In fact, he made numerous declarations about the constitutional inability of the federal government to regulate, restrict, or interfere with religious expression. For example: No power over the freedom of religion . . . is delegated to the United States by the Constitution. Kentucky Resolution, 1798  (Foley, p. 179). Wesley does not endorse the â€Å"separation of church and state,† understood in the Jeffersonian sense. He expects the churches and the government to cooperate with one another. This follows from his firm faith in â€Å"particular providence† and from his conception of the state. All of creation, incl uding the realm of politics, is governed by Divine Providence.God rules the nations according to that â€Å"higher law† which expresses his very nature. He causes the righteous nations to flourish and the disobedient ones to decline and decay. Victory, peace, and bountiful provisions are signs that a nation's conduct is pleasing to God. Adversity, such as defeat in battle or drought and famine, is a mark of his indignation. Disaster is also a warning and a call to repentance. The wicked nation which heeds the call and turns from its sinful ways will live. The obdurate will continue to suffer. In matters of religion, I have considered that its free exercise is placed by the Constitution independent of the powers of the general federal government.Second Inaugural Address, 18054. Annals of the Congress of the United States published by Authority of Congress, 1899, Vol. I, p. 379, March 4, 1805. Our excellent Constitution . . . has not placed our religious rights under the power of any public functionary. Letter to the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1808 (Thomas Jefferson,  Writings of Thomas Jefferson,  Albert Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington D. C. : The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. I, p. 379, March 4, 1805. I consider the government of the United States as interdicted (prohibited) by the Constitution from intermeddling with religious institutions . . . or exercises. Letter to Samuel Millar, 1808.Thomas Jefferson,  Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies, From the Papers of Thomas Jefferson,  Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830), Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to the Rev. Samuel Millar on January 23, 1808. Thomas Jefferson,  Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies, From the Papers of Thomas Jefferson,  Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830), Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to the Rev. Samuel Millar on January 23, 1808. Jefferson believed that the government was to be powerless to interfere with religious expressions for a very simple reason: he had long witnessed the unhealthy tendency of government to encroach upon the free exercise of religion.As he explained to Noah Webster: It had become an universal and almost uncontroverted position in the several States that the purposes of society do not require a surrender of all our rights to our ordinary governors . . . and which experience has nevertheless proved the government will be constantly encroaching on if submitted to them; that there are also certain fences which experience has proved peculiarly efficacious against wrong and rarely obstructive of right, which yet the governing powers have ever shown a disposition to weaken and remove. Of the first kind, for instance, is freedom of religion. (Jefferson,  Writings, Vol. VIII, p. 112-113, to Noah Webster on December 4, 1790). Thomas Jefferson had no intention of allowing the government to limit, restrict, regulate, or interfere with public religious practices.He believed, along with the other Founders, that the First Amendment had been enacted  only  to prevent the federal establishment of a national denomination – a fact he made clear in a letter to fellow-signer of the Declaration of Independence Benjamin Rush: The clause of the Constitution which, while it secured the freedom of the press, covered also the freedom of religion, had given to the clergy a very favorite hope of obtaining an establishment of a particular form of Christianity through the United States; and as every sect believes its own form the true one, every one perhaps hoped for his own, but especially the Episcopalians and Congregationalists.The returning good sense of our country threatens abortion to their hopes and they believe that any portion of power confided to me will be exerted in opposition to their schemes. And they believe rightly. (Jefferson, Writings, Vol. III, p. 441, to Benjamin Rush on September 23, 1800). President Jefferson was committed to p reventing the establishment of a particular form of Christianity whether Episcopalians or Congregationalists or any other as is evidenced in his reply to the Danbury Baptists on January 1, 1802 with assurance that they did not need to be afraid because their free exercise of religion would  never  be interfered with by the federal government.Gentlemen, – The affectionate sentiments of esteem and approbation which you are so good as to express towards me on behalf of the Danbury Baptist Association give me the highest satisfaction. . . . Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his God; that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship; that the legislative powers of government reach actions only and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should â€Å"make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exerci se thereof,† thus building a wall of separation between Church and State.Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties. I reciprocate your kind prayers for the protection and blessing of the common Father and Creator of man, and tender you for yourselves and your religious association assurances of my high respect and esteem. [9] 9. Jefferson,  Writings, Vol. XVI, pp. 281-282, to the Danbury Baptist Association on January 1, 1802. Jefferson's reference to â€Å"natural rights† invoked an important legal phrase which was part of the rhetoric of that day and which reaffirmed his belief that religious liberties were inalienable rights. While the phrase â€Å"natural rights† communicated much to people then, to most citiz ens today those words mean little.By definition, â€Å"natural rights† included â€Å"that which the Books of the Law and the Gospel do contain. †Ã‚  [10]  That is, â€Å"natural rights† incorporated what God Himself had guaranteed to man in the Scriptures. Thus, when Jefferson assured the Baptists that by following their â€Å"natural rights† they would violate  no  social duty, he was affirming to them that the free exercise of religion was their inalienable God-given right and therefore was protected from federal regulation or interference. So clearly did Jefferson understand the Source of America's inalienable rights that he even doubted whether America could survive if we ever lost that knowledge.He queried: And can the liberties of a nation be thought secure if we have lost the only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are the gift of God? That they are not to be violated but with His wrath? Jefferson believ ed that God, not government, was the Author and Source of our rights and that the government, therefore, was to be prevented from interference with those rights. Very simply, the â€Å"fence† of the Webster letter and the â€Å"wall† of the Danbury letter were  not  to limit religious activities in public; rather they were to limit the power of the government to prohibit or interfere with those expressions. Earlier courts long understood Jefferson's intent. In fact, when Jefferson's letter was invoked by the Supreme Court (only twice prior to the 1947  Everson  case – the Reynolds v.United States  case in 1878), unlike today's Courts which publish only his eight-word separation phrase, that earlier Court published Jefferson's entire letter and then concluded: Coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it [Jefferson's letter] may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the Amend ment thus secured. Congress  was deprived of all  legislative power  over mere [religious] opinion, but was left free to  reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. (Thomas Jefferson,  Notes on the State of Virginia  (Philadelphia: Matthew Carey, 1794), Query XVIII, p. 237).That Court then succinctly summarized Jefferson's intent for â€Å"separation of church and state†: The rightful purposes of civil government are for its officers to interfere when principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order. In this . . . is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. With this even the Baptists had agreed; for while wanting to see the government prohibited from interfering with or limiting religious activities, they also had declared it a legitimate function of government â€Å"to punish the man who works ill to his neighbor. † That Court, therefore, and oth ers (for example,  Commonwealth v. Nesbit  and Lindenmuller v. The People), identified actions into which – if perpetrated in the name of religion – the government  did  have legitimate reason to intrude.Those activities included human sacrifice, polygamy, bigamy, concubinage, incest, infanticide, parricide, advocation and promotion of immorality, etc. Such acts, even if perpetrated in the name of religion, would be stopped by the government since, as the Court had explained, they were â€Å"subversive of good order† and were â€Å"overt acts against peace. † However, the government was  never  to interfere with  traditional  religious practices outlined in â€Å"the Books of the Law and the Gospel† – whether public prayer, the use of the Scriptures, public acknowledgements of God, etc. Therefore, if Jefferson's letter is to be used today, let its context be clearly given – as in previous years.Furthermore, earlier Cou rts had always viewed Jefferson's Danbury letter for just what it was: a  personal,  private  letter to a specific group. There is probably no other instance in America's history where words spoken by a single individual in a private letter – words clearly divorced from their context – have become the sole authorization for a national policy. Finally, Jefferson's Danbury letter should never be invoked as a stand-alone document. A proper analysis of Jefferson's views must include his numerous other statements on the First Amendment. Jefferson also declared that the â€Å"power to prescribe any religious exercise. . . .  must rest with the States†.Nevertheless, the federal courts ignore this succinct declaration and choose rather to misuse his separation phrase to strike down scores of State laws which encourage or facilitate public religious expressions. Such rulings against State laws are a direct violation of the words and intent of the very one from wh om the courts claim to derive their policy. One further note should be made about the now infamous â€Å"separation† dogma. The Congressional Records  from June 7 to September 25, 1789, record the months of discussions and debates of the ninety Founding Fathers who framed the First Amendment. Significantly, not only was Thomas Jefferson not one of those ninety who framed the First Amendment, but also, during those debates not one of those ninety Framers ever mentioned the phrase â€Å"separation of church and state. It seems logical that if this had been the intent for the First Amendment – as is so frequently asserted-then at least one of those ninety who framed the Amendment would have mentioned that phrase; none did. In summary, the â€Å"separation† phrase so frequently invoked today was rarely mentioned by any of the Founders; and even Jefferson's explanation of his phrase is diametrically opposed to the manner in which courts apply it today. In its firs t hundred years then of the United States, the Supreme Court interpreted the Constitution's Bill of Rights as a limit on federal government and considered the states bound only by those rights granted to its citizens by their own state constitutions.Because the federal laws during this period were remote influences at most on the personal affairs of its citizens, minimal attention was paid by the Court to how those provisions in the federal Bill of Rights were to be interpreted. Separation of church and state currently means almost exactly the opposite of what it originally meant. The First Amendment affords freedom of religion, not freedom from religion. â€Å"The U. S. Senate opens its sessions with prayer by an official chaplain. While that may be good in the eyes of most religious people in the United States, it does little to change the fundamentally secular process by which Congress works. At no point may a member’s beliefs intrude into the deliberations in an overt wa y—even if they happen to represent the religious sentiments of the majority of a legislator’s constituents.Privatization of religion goes far beyond the so-called separation of church and state, which is also a manifestation of secularity. In almost every sphere of public policy-making, from the highest echelons of government down to the local neighborhood arts council, it is considered inappropriate to raise the issue of God seriously† (Spickard, p. 344). In the modern Western world most people’s lives are much more this worldly in the sense that the solutions to life’s problems, both large and small, are sought in technology and psychology. Even many Christians see the world as a godless place in the sense that God is relegated to heaven and a few sacred places, such as the church.The world goes on, and life can be lived quite successfully, with or without God. The seeds of this secularity were sown in the unbelievably destructive religious confli ct of the 17th century known as the Thirty Years War. This war was partly a result of the Reformation, and it turned Europe into a slaughterhouse. Some scholars estimate that one-half the population of the continent was killed, starved, or sent into exile during the war. As a result, many of the educated elite of Europe became disillusioned with revealed religion and dogmatic theology. They concluded that the religious conflicts of the Reformation gave rise to the chaos and destruction.Enlightenment thinkers believed that if society was to avoid such wars in the future and recover unity, it must base its common life and public institutions on purely nonsectarian, rational philosophies. Critics of traditional Christianity, such as Francois Marie de Voltaire (1694-1778), heaped literary scorn on the kind of dogmatic arguments and sectarian power- struggles that led to the religious wars of the 17th century. Volaire promoted a kind of generic religion based on universal religious truth s and moral ideas he called theism. This natural religion, based entirely on reason, came also to be known as deism – belief in a god stripped of all supernaturally revealed doctrines and elaborate trappings of the formal church.Many men of letters and leaders of European and American culture adopted this secularized religion during the 18th century and attempted to make it part of the basis for a new order in Western society (Spickard). John Wesley was of the opinion that the paramount duty of any government is to hold in check the wild and rebellious human beings who live under its rule. God has authorized the use of force to preserve the peace and punish the disobedient. But Wesley knew that force has its limits, especially since coercion injures the body but leaves the mind unchanged. If the nation is to be truly righteous, the citizens must acquire the habits of deference and compliance, and learn to control their appetites and feelings.Governments depend upon other soci al institutions, including the churches, to form these habits and impart these lessons. The state, in turn, protects the churches and supports their efforts, for example, by granting them tax relief. Wesley to which the Church of the Nazarene agrees taught the Methodists to be loyal citizens and to obey the laws of the land. The commission of a crime would cost a man his membership in a Methodist society, it is on an individual case basis in the Church of the Nazarene. The Continental Congress, followed by the First Federal Congress, said that â€Å"religion, morality, and knowledge† are â€Å"necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind. Wesley would endorse this statement wholeheartedly. Because caselaw depends upon prior legal cases that bind the next court in a similar fact pattern to the extent a reasonable person would expect to be fair and equal from court to court, provided the cases are from a higher court or within the same jurisdiction, then caselaw t ends to erode over time fragmenting into different exceptions in a kind in a way that is more consistent with Darwinian influences of the rational mind of the human animal as if in some long term legal experiment with a hypothesis being tested and retested each time further restricting the freedom at hand in this case religious liberty. Another factor to consider is that many secular humanists are so anxious to erase Christianity altogether that they disregard the wall.The wall is supposed to work to protect religious express not to reduce it further and further until there is no public evidence of any faith expression. The constitutional clause is just as much that the government will not interfere and most early cases were from this side of the wall. Recently the caselaw has been from the other side that interprets every visible sign as ‘promoting’ religion whether a cross on the roadway, 1O Commandments on a classroom wall, a public nativity display, prayer in school , carrying a Bible, etc. When the moral majority and other Christian legal activism on social issues of abortion for example were fought so passionately, often the Christian activist forgot to be compassionate and let the cause get ahead of the Gospel.Legal activism has its appropriate arena. That arena is not carrying placards in front of an abortion clinic but rather offering options in an alternate social solution. That is not to say that the wall should not also at times be invisible in that sometimes a church ought to be available for a poll booth just as a courthouse should be open for a religious ceremony when the occasion warrants. In rendering to our government Caesar the things that are Caesars and to our God the things that are Gods’ –we have two allegiances that need not be conflicting, so that one can be both a patriotic American and entirely sanctified Christian devoted to God and country.This is the constitutional paradigm around which the walls of separ ation inform and lend moral ethical standards over time to caselaw so that it does not take that slippery downward Darwinian style erosion for lack of any absolute moral code. Separation of Church and State empowers both the Church and the State when properly so applied, it is not intended to be freedom from religion but freedom of religion just as one does not step into a church free from the country as if stepping into an embassy of a foreign territory. 25% of all quotes in documents of the founding fathers were from the Bible, they had no fear of the Bible or of the Church.The presence of a paid Chaplain is evidence as well that there was respect of the presence of God who could bless the work. At the present time the wall of separation still exists but it is being reassembled into a sledgehammer to hit away at the church. Christians need to love people but hold fast to the faith and stand resolved on the Word of God as authoritative law as much as the Constitution or any regulat ion of the State. ADDENDUM 1: Preconstituional Letters of Legal Reference establishing legislative history from which intent may be inferred: Letter of October 7, 1801, from Danbury (CT) Baptist Association to Thomas Jefferson, from the Thomas Jefferson Papers Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. The Jeffersonian Cyclopedia, John P.Foley, editor (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1900), p. 977; see also Documents of American History, Henry S. Cummager, editor (NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. , 1948), p. 179. Annals of the Congress of the United States (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1852, Eighth Congress, Second Session, p. 78, March 4, 1805; see also James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897 (Published by Authority of Congress, 1899), Vol. I, p. 379, March 4, 1805. Jefferson, Thomas. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington D. C. : The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. I, p. 379, March 4, 1805. Jefferson, Thomas.Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies, From the Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Gray and Bowen, 1830), Vol. IV, pp. 103-104, to the Rev. Samuel Millar on January 23, 1808. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. VIII, p. 112-113, to Noah Webster on December 4, 1790. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. III, p. 441, to Benjamin Rush on September 23, 1800. Jefferson, Writings, Vol. XVI, pp. 281-282, to the Danbury Baptist Association on January 1, 1802. Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia (Philadelphia: Matthew Carey, 1794), Query XVIII, p. 237. ADDENDUM 2 United States First Amendment Caselaw Establishment ClausePublic funding Everson v. Board of Education 330 U. S. 1 (1947) McCollum v. Board of Education 333 U. S. 203 (1948) in this case the Supreme Court ruled that Illinois public school practice of allowing Protestant, R. C. and Jewish faith groups to give religious instruction to students during school at th e same time allowing others to opt out, was found to violate the First Amendment. Walz v. Tax Commission 397 US 664 (1970) The Court held that grants of tax exemption to religious organizations was far less of an involvement than would be created by taxation of churches, and the effect of the exemptions was thus not an excessive government entanglement with religion.The grant of a tax exemption was not sponsorship of the organizations because the government did not transfer part of its revenue to churches but simply abstained from demanding that the churches support the state. Lemon v. Kurtzman 403 US 602 (1971) The Court ruled that a Pennsylvania School Law to reimburse nonpublic mostly Catholic schools for the salaries of teachers who taught secular curriculum violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The Court's decision in this case established the â€Å"Lemon test† consisting of three prongs: (1) the government's action must have a secular legislative pur pose; (2) the government's action must not have the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion; (3) the government's action must not result in an â€Å"excessive government entanglement† with religion.If any of these 3 prongs are violated, the government's action is deemed unconstitutional under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Marsh v. Chambers 463 US 783 (1983) held government funding for chaplains was constitutional because of the â€Å"unique history† of the United States as demonstrated by the fact that three days before the ratification of the 1st Amendment, containing the Establishment clause, the federal legislature authorized hiring a chaplain for opening sessions with prayer. Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994) The court held that the creation of a school district designed to coincide with the neighborhood boundaries of a religious group constitutes an unco nstitutional aid to religion. Agostini v.Felton 521 US 203 (1997) In this case, the Court overruled a previous decision now finding that it was not a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment for a state-sponsored education initiative to allow public school teachers to instruct at religious schools, so long as the material was secular and neutral in nature and no â€Å"excessive entanglement† between government and religion was apparent. This case is noteworthy in a broader sense as a sign of evolving judicial standards surrounding the First Amendment, and the changes that have occurred in modern Establishment Clause jurisprudence. Mitchell v. Helms 530 US 793 (2000) The Court ruled that it was permissible for loans to be made to religious schools under Chapter 2 of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981. The government may now provide aid to religious groups as long as such aid advances some legitimate non-religious purpose and is granted in the same manner to non-religious groups. Zelman v.Simmons-Harris 536 US 639 (2002) upheld school vouchers of Ohio under the Private Choice Test developed by the court, for a voucher program to be constitutional it must meet all of the following criteria: the program must have a valid secular purpose, aid must go to parents and not to the schools, a broad class of beneficiaries must be covered, the program must be neutral with respect to religion, and there must be adequate nonreligious options. Locke v. Davey 540 US 712 (2004) upheld the constitutionality of a Washington publicly funded scholarship program which excluded students pursuing a degree in theology. Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v.Winn (2011) A group of Arizona taxpayers challenged a state law that provides tax credits to people who donate to school tuition organizations that in turn provide scholarships to students who want to attend private or religious schools. The Supreme Court found that any damage s or harm claimed by the taxpayers by virtue of simply being a taxpayer would be pure speculation because the issue at hand was a tax credit and not a government expenditure. Public displays: Lynch v. Donnelly (1984) County of Allegheny v. ACLU (1989) McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky (2005) Van Orden v. Perry (2005) School prayer:Zorach v. Clauson (1952) Engel v. Vitale (1962) Abington School District v. Schempp (1963) Stone v. Graham (1980) Wallace v. Jaffree (1985) Lee v.Weisman (1992) Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe (2000) Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow (2004) Creationism: Epperson v. Arkansas (1968) 393 U. S. 97 (1968), invalidated an Arkansas statute that prohibited the teaching of human evolution in the public schools. Edwards v. Aguillard (1987) Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (M. D. Pa. 2005). Works Cited Barton, David. The Separation of Church and State. 1st ed. Wallbuilders Press. 2007. Beail, Linda. Wesleyan or Fundamentalist? Political a nd Theological Stances of Nazarene Pastors. Association of Nazarene Sociologists and Researchers. Web.

Modern Accounting Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Modern Accounting Systems - Essay Example Contrary to ‘paper-based accounting systems’, where older documentations are hard to assess because the amount of paper rises with the passage of time, modern systems can conveniently show old records as well as trends supported by past years. Executives can check with old financial plans and cost data to advance existing estimations. When exterior circumstances modify, modern systems have the capability to forecast outcomes for various situations, letting administration to develop estimating with forecasts for all eventualities. While not capable of eliminating ‘human error’, modern accounting systems have confirmation abilities that lessen the occurrence of such mistakes. â€Å"Once the data is entered correctly, it is permanently captured and reading errors are eliminated† (Turner & Weickgennant, 2008). Programmers can configure fields so that the system just allows information in the right design. They can inflict information confirmation so the s ystem verifies whether the information is rational, and discards it if it is not. These actions perk up the accurateness of information as well as the consistency of management estimates, lessening costly errors within operations based on such information.The objective of nearly all companies is to make a profit. Accounting lets company owners to trace report and evaluate their company’s financial records. Accounting offers information involving â€Å"earnings, the cost of merchandise sold, operating expense, assets, liabilities and owner’s equity†.

Social Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social Law - Essay Example Link between corporate crime and Social crime Corporate crimes engage planning, tactical residency the deviance ought to be harmful to people exterior of a corporation or rather the deviance of corporate representatives ought to extend the intentions and desires of a Corporation. The deviance should be supported or abided by top administrative and/or colleagues. The prime recipient of this deviant deed is the corporation. Social crime denotes a cluster of peoples who occupy a comparable place in the economic structure of production. In that classification profession is extremely vital since it offers monetary incentives, steadiness and benefits like healthcare. Has the law’s view of the criminal responsibility of corporations changed over the years? The conclusion of the century provides a chance to mirror on legal replies to alterations in social and monetary organization. Increasing dependence on sophisticated expertise, the developing trendy terminology of risk, and endeavo rs to position the wherewithal of criminal law in opposition to business ventures are a number of the expressions of those alterations. There has developed a debate concerning probable criminal accountability for 'Millennium Bug' tragedies captures these prime features of modern life. Civil and Criminal Law Civil decree endeavors to determine non-criminal arguments for instance divergences over the connotations of contracts, land ownership, annulment, child care, and harms for individual and property denting. Civil law ought to be used since its purpose is to give a legal solution to resolve problems. Criminal decree is that organization of the decree that tackles conduct deemed so dangerous to community entirely that it is forbidden by statute, impeached and penalized by the governing body (Gardner and Terry, 17). Criminal law is a matter of enforcement looking in the sheriff viewpoint. A sheriff is a bureaucrat of the court, plus his chief purpose and role is to serve and performs the diverse legal courses and mandates issued. Secondly, Divisional and government department policies and courses are reliable throughout the court case law in the U.S. These rules are crafted and established to cover the accurate, prompt, and judicious service and implementation of all matters regarding the enforcement of consents and course. Thirdly, the FEC has private power over the public enforcement of the centralized fight against finance law. In implementing that influence, the Commission utilizes a multiplicity of techniques to uncover probable election law breaches. How crime in the streets is viewed versus how crime in the suites is viewed by society? By means of burglary and fraud as two paradigms, the judgments indicate that public viewpoints of sanction conviction and relentlessness advocated that street criminals were exceptionally credible to be caught and be judged to more harsh sentences as opposed to white-collar criminals. There is much debate on which crime sh ould be punished severely. Both crimes are perceived to receive the exact sentence and are at par. With this in consideration, there is no varying perception in crime in the suites, and it is not supposed to be changing. Question Two Functionalist verses Conflict view of change Conflict philosophers perceive social change as happening merely via infighting amid social classes. Even as, it is factual that numerous revolutions have emerged in the emergence of class plus/or cluster conflict, it is a terrific deal different from the outlook functionalists inclination. Functionalists characteristically employ the additional tangible factors, for example, population development and industrial advances as pioneering the indict

Identity theft how it has affected societies way of life and reality Research Paper

Identity theft how it has affected societies way of life and reality - Research Paper Example Every part of an individual’s life is surrounded with electronic items such as computers, cell phones and credit cards. Transfer of information is taking place every second in our lives, whether we are at home, work or educational centres; information is flowing from one at to another at every next moment. Due to immense use of technology, individuals end up leaving a huge track of footprints that are digital in nature. These tracks can be used by any other individual to obtain personal as well as public information of any particular individual. If these footprints fall in the hands of people who may use them wrongly, we may end up suffering heavy losses both emotionally and financially. Identity theft is referred to the criminal act of impersonating as another individual and obtaining benefits in the name of that individual. Identity theft may even be used to obtain an individual’s information and then committing crimes in the name of that individual. The US General Ac counting Office has defined identity theft as an act of obtaining an individual’s information and using that information to gain financial benefits (Hayward, 2004, p.93). Information and Privacy Commissioner defines this crime as an act of impersonating as another individual and then obtaining credit in his name (Barnard-Wills, 2012, p.188). A survey conducted by the Federal Trade Commission conducted in 2003 stated that during 2002 the number of victims of identity theft have tripled as compared to the statistics of 2001 ((Hayward, 2004, p.61). The Chubb Insurance conducted a survey during 2005 and figured out that one American our 5 American is a victim of this crime. Identity theft can be conducted in various ways (Loberg, 2004, p.34). The methods of conducting this crime are being updated and altered quite frequently. Activities of injecting an individual’s computer system with viruses and malicious instruments are conducted

Outsourcing to Foreign Countries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Outsourcing to Foreign Countries - Essay Example Changes in the way in which organizations conduct business have been rapid and wide-spread as the concept of outsourcing has been introduced. It is the inherent nature of the marketplace to increase efficiency within the workplace by constantly striving to produce the most products with the least expenditure of resources. It is this concept that has driven many corporations to join in the globalization process, frequently outsourcing many of their activities and production processes to less developed countries in which this process is less expensive and requires fewer restrictions, licensing, and/or controls. â€Å"Global markets offer greater opportunity for people to tap into more and larger markets around the world. It means that they can have access to more capital flows, technology, cheaper imports and larger export markets†. Although the idea of a global market and outsourcing sounds like an ideal situation for the increased flow of goods and currencies throughout the world, as well as a possible solution for the redistribution of wealth into some of the world’s most destitute countries, â€Å"in practice, this has meant that the governments of the advanced capitalist countries, along with the I.M.F., the World Bank, and the W.T.O., have increasingly sought to force other nations to adopt market economies, privatize public companies and resources, abandon labor and environmental regulations, reduce social services, and embrace ‘free trade’ and the free movement of transnational capital†.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 10

Marketing - Essay Example ly highly competitive but also very difficult to survive due to high food prices; it is difficult for large retail stores like Tesco to provide substantial discounts. Moreover, research needs to carried out to determine what are the factors due to which the customers grocery habits are changing in favour of smaller stores as compared to Tesco. Porter’s five competitive forces model was developed by Michael E Porter and provides insight into the opportunities and threats that c corporate strategy should cater to. The Five competitive forces are supplier bargaining power, bargaining power of customers, 1.Supplier Bargaining Power: In this particular case, since Tesco is selling may brands and is not dependent to a great extent on sales of any particular brand to keep people coming back for more, the supplier power is minimum. The customers perceive Tesco itself as a brand. Due to this the supplier power is minimized. Infact the suppliers themselves want to retain a good relationship. 2.The Competition (Competitive Rivalry): An article on U Talk Marketing.com identifies the current â€Å"chicken fight† going on between Asda and Tesco in order to maximize their share of the target market, the housewives, purse. The approach of Asda is to indulge in offensive price wars with Tesco with a â€Å"loss leading strategy, whereby the product chicken would be the loss leader product in order to drive more customer traffic to other product lines of ASDA. Tesco’s response is a no compromise on quality or prices approach.3This identifies the foremost issue of Tesco i.e. an overly competitive market in which survival is based on entirely the volume of sales rather than the profit margin per sale. 3. Bargaining Power of Customers: due to the highly competitive conditions, the ultimate power lies in the hands of the customers. The price focus in marketing strategies and the price wars are benefiting the customers and the customers choose the best value for money deal for their

Effects Of Early Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Effects Of Early Marriage - Essay Example Early marriages, also known as underage marriages, put a negative impact on both men and women. Marriage is a relationship that requires mental maturity and willingness to accept the responsibility of some other person. An underage person is not able to fulfill all requirements of marriage because he/she is not mentally mature to understand the responsibilities that he/she owes to his/her partner (Ask, 1985). Marriage is not just about developing a sexual relationship and producing children; rather it is a relationship that encompasses many other responsibilities as well. For example, in a marital relationship, the husband owes the responsibility to take proper care of the wife. Here, the word ‘proper care’ includes all those responsibilities that a husband needs to fulfill, such as, provision of shelter to the wife and ensuring financial and physical security of the wife. Summing it up, early marriages adversely affect the lives of women. Young women have to face a number of problems due to early marriages, such as childbirth problems, educational problems, and mental illness. The dilemma is that hardly any attention by the governments of developing countries is being given towards this critical issue. It is the responsibility of the governments to take proper steps to put an end to the trend of early marriages. Some steps may include a compete for a ban on early marriages, creating awareness among people regarding effects of early marriages, and providing better healthcare facilities to young mothers in order to reduce their sufferings.

The Contribution Of Feminist Criticism To Opera Studies Essay

The Contribution Of Feminist Criticism To Opera Studies - Essay Example In order to defend the position of a woman and stop discrimination, feminism penetrates all the spheres of life. As the old values of the society have been formed for a long time and are reflected in the works of art, it became necessary for the strugglers for human rights to make feminist movement influence the sphere of art. Old plots of classical art creations are very popular today and widely used by producers for their performances. However, feminists claim that many of these plots should be modified. The trouble is that they plunge us into the past values and traditions feminists did their best to change. As the plots are too old, the representation of women is usually too discriminative and reminds men about their dominance in the past. Under such influence the efforts of feminists risk to come to nothing, thus they consider it necessary to impose their effect on the sphere of the modern art. The given paper will provide the overview of the feminist influence in the sphere of mass media and demonstrate how the modern opera is affected by the feminist movement. The main argument of feminists is the â€Å"male gaze† that can be traced in modern performances. Notwithstanding that feministic mood penetrated many fields, the sphere of film-making remained almost unchanged. It keeps using motives, which are considered to be classical, in spite of the fact that they were formed in the patriarchal society. A woman continues playing secondary role. Boetticher explains: "what counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself the woman has not the slightest importance."1 If to trace the literary works on the topic, it becomes clear that the problem was started to be considered by the strugglers for women’s rights already in 1970s. The work by Mulvey titled "Visual Pleasure and Narrat ive Cinema" discussed the secondary role and discrimination of women. The author states: "in their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness," and as a result contends that in film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning.†2 The author draws the readers’ attention to the theory of Lacan that explains how the performances contributes to gender discrimination by depicting women as objects for sexual exploitation. Mulvey emphasizes the importance of re-consideration of the plots used to make performances. She states that the radical changes in the film-making structure are crucial as it is the only way to eliminate gender discriminative motives from modern performances. The issues of women discrimination in opera was discussed in the book by Catherine Clement. The feministic work â€Å"Opera: The und oing of Women† were created at the end of 1970’s. The author strongly believes that in opera women are oppressed and men dominate over them. She underlines that women in opera are portrayed as victims, who cannot express their own feelings and who sacrifice their lives for their beloved men. The life of these women in most situations has a tragic end. Really, it is possible to trace that most of the female protagonists appear in difficult circumstances and they are always unhappy and dissatisfied. In order to prove that it is enough to overview the most famous plots that are depicted in opera. The main heroine of â€Å"Tosca† Floria has committed suicide after she got to know about the execution of her beloved. The opera â€Å"Madam Butterfly† is rather popular, but if to consider it from critical point of view, it is plot is

Boeing Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Boeing Case Study - Essay Example It is evident from the study case, that the problem in Boeing was affecting different processes within the company. The whole company was in doubt; the previous admirable performances were ceasing. The stock had previously risen by 6.7%, and it was beginning to fall drastically. The company later began undergoing a series of changes. This was after the company was unable to meet the prevailing demand. It tried its best by doubling it capability, but all was in vain. It got to the extent that the company had stop producing the 747 for 20 working days. This was to the company as it lost a lot of money. From the arguments from the acting president, this was a result a poor organizational structure. Other activities casing the problem are lack of communication. In reference to the culture of the company, it has been doing well through acquisitions, thus forming integration among different companies. The aim of the strategy was to extend its reach, therefore, making the company stronger t hat its opponents. These activities made the company lose the culture. It merged with different organizations, such as the McDonnell Douglas in the year 1997. The step made the company change its operations, as well as, its management trends and centre of administration was transferred to Seattle Chicago. Issues in the management of the company began after the merging action as it lost its culture. McDonnell had a complex culture, based on defense contracts. The merge also came with it, financial issues where $92.5 Million were distributed to shareholders. In the same year, the firm designed new strategies to improve their marketing capabilities. It also hoped that the production would increase the level of production. The firm also employed new strategies to for communication within it. Their stock was also keenly supervised through system. This is evidence that the company, was getting back to its previous position. There was also decentralization of information technology within the firm. This enhanced collaboration between different branches of the company. Toward the end of the month of December 2003, the company had recovered the opportunity to manufacture the 7E7 Jets. From analysis from difference economist, the reason behind the under performance of the company was that it had over promised and under-delivered. It is evident that the plans of the company depend on the producing smaller planes; it also plans to expand its productivity to the extent of purchasing large plans in the future. Market pressure There are diverse pressures that triggered Boeing to effect changes on its operational strategies. A crucial pressure for Boeing was mainly market demand. Market demand markedly increased in 1997, in an attempt to meet all its surplus orders, Boeing instantly doubled its production. Unfortunately, this strategy brought about a severe manufacturing crisis. Worse still, Boeing’s reputation was deteriorating and it called for urgent measures to cur b the situation. It was then that the manufacturing of 747 was abruptly stopped for up to 20 days. Lack of communication within the organization was the main source of the ongoing crisis. However, Boeing termed it as a win at all cost methodology. There has been a series of endless problems at Boeing. Citing a case of the year 1994, shock prevailed among executive managers when Airbus booked more orders than

Public Transportation Essay Example for Free

Public Transportation Essay Public Transportation there are many kinds of commuters on public transportation: there are bus commuters, train commuters, and plain commuters. The first kind of commuter are people who ride the bus. At some point in their lifetime, everyone has had to ride the bus. Children ride the bus to school on a daily basis all the way through adolescence. People who live in large cities, ride the bus just about everywhere they need to go. Local buses bring in large amounts of money for their area and can be very helpful to the people of the town. The second facet of transportation would be the train system. Among the many classifications of train systems, there are subways, trolleys, and rail ways. Subways are utilized by people who live in large areas. Trolleys are used by people who live in smaller areas, like suburbs. Rail ways, broken up in rail roads, are used all across the nation. Rail road cars, drive on train tracks, and have become so popular that collectible toys have even been made after them. Rail ways help transport many of our nations most important goods, and without them we would be facing serious problems. The third type of transportation are airplanes. Air planes are mostly used for long distance traveling. Air planes are the most expensive of the three types, but they are still used very often. The wealthy often use air planes as their main way of traveling. Air planes can be seen by some as dangerous and very risky because of their bad history in the past. Air planes are high flying machines that carry people from city to city and sometimes even across countries. Air planes are used by people in politics, the millitary, and even regular citizens. Air planes are very important to our country and help make our lives much easier. As you can see, there are many diffrent types of transportation, but they all help make our lives easier in their own special way.

The Rayleigh Ritz Method Computer Science Essay

The Rayleigh Ritz Method Computer Science Essay The given assignment is done with the soul purpose of developing an intense knowledge and understanding of vibrational behaviour and dynamic response of structures. The assignment aims to apply up to date methods of structural dynamics in aerospace and aerospace system engineering. Here we use Rayleigh-Ritz method and Finite Element method to obtain the natural frequency and mode shape of the given cantilever beam. 1. Rayleigh-Ritz Method Rayleigh-Ritz method is an extension of the Rayleigh method which was developed by the Swiss mathematician and physicist Walter Ritz. Its one of the widely used method to calculate more accurate value of fundamental frequency, further it also gives approximations to the higher frequencies and mode shapes. In the Ritz method the single shape function is replaced by a series of shape functions multiplied by constant coefficients, that is the single function of deflection choose in Rayleigh method is assumed to be a sum of several functions multiplied by constant coefficients. The coefficients values are modified by reducing the frequency with respect to each of the coefficients, which result in n algebraic equations in. The solution of these equations will give the value of natural frequency and mode shapes of the system. It should be taken into account that the success of the method is only possible so long as the shape function taken satisfies the geometric boundary conditions of the problem. The method should also be differentiable to the order of the derivatives of the equations. Here the function can ignore discontinuities like shear due to concentrated masses that involve third derivatives in beam. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is done by assuming the deflection curve of the beam by The function are the assumed displacement functions that satisfy geometrical boundary conditions. For a cantilever beam the boundary conditions are They are selected such that it is possible to obtain a good approximation to each of the required natural modes by superposition. The quantities are generalized coordinates representing contributions of each assumed functions. For a beam divided into à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ºn span wise stations the total differential equation can be formulate using Lagrange equation as Putting as a solution , where the amplitude of the displacement is, is the frequency and is the phase angle. This set of characteristics equations can be solved for n discrete values of . This equation can easily be put into a matrix form for numerical calculation as For a beam divided into n span wise station the mass and stiffness terms can be formulated into matrices as Where = matrix of assumed modes = mass matrix = matrix of weighting coefficients = rigidity matrix Hence we write as The above equation is considered to be convenient for computation, but has limitations in the manner of expressing the strain energy. Given Data Length L=1.5 Modulus of Elasticity E=74 GPa Poissons Ratio P=0.33 Material density The depth of the beam tapers uniformly from 0.3 at the fixed end to 0.1 at the free end. The breadth of the beam tapers uniformly from 0.02 at the fixed end to 0.005 at the free end. The assumed modes are given by the polynomial function: MATLAB Operation >> L=1.5 L = 1.5000 >>x=[0,0.15,0.3,0.45,0.6,0.75,0.9,1.05,1.2,1.35,1.5] x = 0 0.1500 0.3000 0.4500 0.6000 0.7500 0.9000 1.0500 1.2000 1.3500 1.5000 >> s=x/L s = 0 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000 0.8000 0.9000 1.0000 >> V1= 2*s.^2-(4/3)*s.^3+(1/3)*s.^4 V1 = 0 0.0187 0.0699 0.1467 0.2432 0.3542 0.4752 0.6027 0.7339 0.8667 1.0000 >> V2=(10/3)*s.^3-(10/3)*s.^4+s.^5 V2 = 0 0.0030 0.0217 0.0654 0.1382 0.2396 0.3658 0.5111 0.6690 0.8335 1.0000 >> V=[V1;V2] V = 0 0.0187 0.0699 0.1467 0.2432 0.3542 0.4752 0.6027 0.7339 0.8667 1.0000 0 0.0030 0.0217 0.0654 0.1382 0.2396 0.3658 0.5111 0.6690 0.8335 1.0000 >> dV1=(1/(L.^2))*(4-8*s+4*(s.^2)) dV1 = 1.7778 1.4400 1.1378 0.8711 0.6400 0.4444 0.2844 0.1600 0.0711 0.0178 0 >> dV2= (1/(L.^2))*(20*s-40*(s.^2)+20*(s.^3)) dV2 = 0 0.7200 1.1378 1.3067 1.2800 1.1111 0.8533 0.5600 0.2844 0.0800 0 >> dV=[dV1;dV2] dV = 1.7778 1.4400 1.1378 0.8711 0.6400 0.4444 0.2844 0.1600 0.0711 0.0178 0 0 0 .7200 1.1378 1.3067 1.2800 1.1111 0.8533 0.5600 0.2844 0.0800 0 Weighting matrix can be formulated using Trapezoidal rule, Simpsons rule and Lagranges Interpolation formula. By Lagranges interpolation formula if the beam is divided into 10 equal elements with spacing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ºd then weighting matrix is computed as: MATLAB Operation >> d=0.15 d = 0.1500 >> W1=(d/3.7266)*[1,6.616,-3.020,16.954,-16.216,26.599,-16.216,16.954, -3.020, 6.616,1] W1 = 0.0403 0.2663 -0.1216 0.6824 -0.6527 1.0706 -0.6527 0.6824 -0.1216 0.2663 0.0403 >> W=diag(W1) W = 0.0403 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2663 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.1216 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6824 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.6527 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0706 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.6527 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6824 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.1216 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2663 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0403 Mass matrix is a diagonal matrix representing the mass per unit length at the eleven span wise stations. The matrix can be calculated by Material density = 2700 The depth of the beam at a station with a distance x from the fixed end is given by Depth Similarly the breadth of the beam at a station with a distance x from the fixed end is given by Breadth MATLAB Operation >> h=0.3-(s*0.2) h = 0.3000 0.2800 0.2600 0.2400 0.2200 0.2000 0.1800 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 >> b=0.02-(s*0.015) b = 0.0200 0.0185 0.0170 0.0155 0.0140 0.0125 0.0110 0.0095 0.0080 0.0065 0.0050 >> m=2700*diag(b)*diag(h) m = 16.2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13.9860 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.9340 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.0440 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.3160 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.3460 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.1040 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.0240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.1060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.3500 The Second moment of area of the beam is given by MATLAB Operation >> I=diag(h)*(diag(b).^3)/12 I = 1.0e-006 * 0.2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1477 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1064 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0745 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0503 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0326 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0114 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0027 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0010 Rigidity matrix is the diagonal matrix that gives the product of modulus of elasticity and the second moment of area of the beam about the neutral axis. EI=74000000000*I EI = 1.0e+004 * 1.4800 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0933 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.7877 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5511 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.3723 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2409 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1477 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0846 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0442 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0203 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0077 Substituting in Rayleigh-Ritz equation: This gives Simplifying The above equation is a quadratic in , which can be solved = Result: The approximate values of the first and second natural frequencies of the given beam under flexural vibrations, by the use of Rayleigh- Ritz method, was found to be 2. Mode shapes Consider the equation Substituting the values of in the above equation and simplifying The column matrix that represents the mode shape at the eleven stations is obtained by putting, = 0.0578 Substituting the value of in the above equation and simplifying The column matrix that represents the mode shape at the eleven stations is obtained by putting, = 0.0693 3. Finite Element Method Finite Element Method (FEM) is considered to be one of the profound developments in the static and dynamics analysis of continuous systems. It provides a discrete approximation to vibration of continuous systems. The finite element method can be developed as a special case of the Rayleigh -Ritz method. The method was originally developed for the static- stress analysis of complex distributed parameter structures. Now a days FEM is widely applied to disciplines of heat transfer, electro magnetics, fluid flow and vibrations. In finite element method the structure is divided into a large number of small but finite parts called elements which are interconnected at points called nodes. For each element a displacement function is assumed which satisfies the geometric boundary condition so that continuity is achieved between the elements. The variations in displacement of each element( which can be linear, quadratic etc.), are assumed over the length of the element. This method allows the displacement of any point in the element to be expressed in terms of the displacement at the end of the element. These displacements by finite element terminology are called nodal variables. Unlike Rayleigh-Ritz in finite element method the global coordinate is replaced by a local coordinate where is the length of the element. The kinetic and strain energy of the element is obtained by integrating along the elements length, in terms of the nodal variables. By superposing the energies contributed by the individual elements into which the structure is divided, we can obtain the kinetic and strain energy of the structure or system in terms of the nodal variables of the whole structure. The finite element method is mainly based on variational principles. The method is considered very much versatile and can be used to physical problems with arbitrary shapes, loads and support conditions. The finite element model has a close resemblance to the actual structure. Many general finite element code packages have been written over the years with user friendly windows and menus (GUI) which allow for easy geometry setup, boundary condition manipulation and evaluation/post processing of common structural problems. Some of the most popular codes in the industry are ANSYS, MSC Nastran and MARC. ANSYS will be the code used for this assignment. ANSYS Operation Define Material Step 1: Set preferences Preferences are set in order to filter quantities that pertain to this discipline. Step 2: Define constant material properties. Modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio and Density are defined. Step 3:- Modeling Create the beam with required geometry. Generating Mesh Step 4: Define element type Two element types are defined: a 2-D element and a 3-D element. The beam cross-sectional area is meshed with 2-D elements, and then the area is to be extruded to create a 3-D volume. The mesh will be extruded along with the geometry so 3-D elements will automatically be created in the volume. Step 5: Mesh the area Mesh control are specified in order to obtain a particular mesh density. Element edge length is set at 0.01 Note: Mesh density is very important. If the mesh is too coarse your result can contain serious errors. If the mesh is too fine, would cause waste of computer resources, experience excessively long run time, the model may be too large to be run on the computer system. Unfortunately it cannot be definitively specified how fine the mesh density should be. But one way to find out is to perform the analysis with what seems to be a reasonable mesh. Then reanalyse the problem with twice as many elements in the critical region and compare the results. If the two mesh give the same result then the mesh probably be adequate. If there is substantial difference between the two results then further refinement of the mesh is required. Step 6:- Extrude the meshed area into a meshed volume. The 3-D volume is generated by first changing the element type to SOLID 45, which is defined as element type 2, and then extruding the area into a volume. The number of element divisions is set as 10 Offsets of extrusion are set as 0, 0, 1.5 Tapering ratio is given as 0.33333, 0.25, 0 Apply loads Step 7:- Unselect 2-D elements Before applying constraints to the fixed end of the wing, unselect all the PLANE42 elements used in the 2-D area mesh since they will not be used for the analysis. Step 8:- Apply constraints to the model Constraints will be applied to all nodes located where the wing is fixed to the body. Select all nodes at z = 0, then apply the displacement constraints. Obtain Solution Step 9:- Specify analysis type and options Specify a modal analysis type. Number of modes to be extracted is given as 5 Number of modes to be expanded is given as 5 Step 10:- Solve Observe results Step 11:-List natural frequencies ***** INDEX OF DATA SETS ON RESULTS FILE ***** SET TIME/FREQ LOAD STEP SUBSTEP CUMULATIVE 1 11.964 1 1 1 2 40.840 1 2 2 3 100.05 1 3 3 4 144.08 1 4 4 5 182.70 1 5 5 Step 12:- Animate the two mode shapes. Set the results for the first mode to be animated. Observe the first mode shape. Animate the next mode shape. Observe the second mode shape. Repeat the same procedure to obtain the other three mode shapes. First Mode Shape Second Mode Shape Third Mode Shape Fourth Mode Shape Fifth Mode Shape 4. Comparison of Rayleigh-Ritz Method and Finite Element Method Rayleigh-Ritz method Rayleigh-Ritz method uses the principle of conservation of energy to formulate the matrix equation.one major advantage of this method is that it allows us to neglect the non-applied forces like forces at a point of rolling contact, forces at frictionless guides etc. Considering the method to be an extension of the Rayleigh method it has an improved accuracy by assuming the deflection curve of the beam to be Nevertheless the assumed function should satisfy all the boundary conditions and should be linearly independent. This can be easily achieved by using polynomial expression to derive the deflection function. Disadvantages and limitations The selection of assumed deflection function requires a good knowledge and expertise of the method Good approximation of the true natural modes are only possible as the assumed function are limited in numbers and nature All n modal solutions will not give a good approximation to the true mode, so it is necessary to discard some higher frequency modes. The approximations are only good for lower modes and it becomes worse for higher modes. The major limitation of this method is in the manner in which the strain energy can be expressed. Finite Element Method The finite element method (its practical application is often as Finite Element Analysis)is a powerful technique developed in the analysis of complex structural mechanics. In this method the structure is divided into large number of finite parts or elements which are interconnected at points called nodes. The elements will have properties like thickness, Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio etc. An assumption is made over the variation over the length of the element. This allows to find the displacement at any point in the given structure by introducing Disadvantages and limitations The method is not considered convenient for simple structures. Its a time consuming operation. Its accuracy depends on the number of elements the structure is divided. It does not provide a closed-form solution, denying analytical study of the effects of changing parameters. It needs a reliable program for support. Creating a good model requires experience. A good amount of data are required and voluminous output must be sorted and studied. Comparison of results Obtained by Rayleigh-Ritz Method Obtained by Finite Element Method % Difference 0.77% 26.82% There is difference of 26.82% for the second frequency of the system. The value obtained by the Rayleigh-Ritz method can be brought closer to accuracy by increasing the number of assumed functions and by improving their nature. Normally the approximation becomes worse as we move to higher modes .With use of only two assumed functions, the solutions obtained are considered to be satisfactory. Errors in Rayleigh-Ritz method To use the method with ease the assumed functions are kept as simple as possible by using simple polynomial functions and at fewer times only the functions of sine and cosine are used. There is no exact answer as to which function the good approximate value can be obtained. There are always some terms omitted in the function which results to an ineffective solution. This method is considered to be inflexible as the actual displacement of the structure is restricted to only the shape generated by superposing the finite number of functions selected by the analyst. Recommendation to improve Rayleigh-Ritz method The iterative process can be carried out with each time adding the term in the assumed function until it gives the exact value. Errors in Finite Element method Distorted mesh can result in flawed stiffness and mass terms Errors are always presented at joints and constrained boundaries due to uncertainty. Recommendation to improve Finite Element method Iterative method has to be applied to see the number of elements actually required to break down the structure so as to obtain more accurate value. Appropriate methods should be employed for remeshing like HYPERMESH, Mesh++ based on a posterior error. CONCLUSION The first and second natural frequencies of the given beam are found out by using both Rayleigh-Ritz method and Finite element method, and mode shapes for these frequencies are drawn.